Table 2 Functions of galectins in different tumors

Gal-1

Glioma, breast, ovarian, cervical, pancreas, prostate, thyroid, colorectal, lung, melanoma, neuroblastoma, hepatic, gastric, bladder

Increases cell growth, migration, invasion, angiogenesis, metastasis and chemotherapy resistance, induces tumor immune evasion, promotes tumor progression, inhibits apoptosis

Interacts with glycoconjugates and regulates the biological activities of H-Ras/MEK/ERK, β-catenin pathways in the tumor microenvironment

[16, 24,25,26,27,28,29]

Gal-3

Glioma, breast, ovarian, cervical, pancreas, prostate, thyroid, colorectal, liver, lung, melanoma, neuroblastoma, bladder, gastric, tongue, renal

Increases metastasis formation, reduces apoptosis and induces tumor immune evasion, increase adhesion, tumor growth and motility, induces chemoresistance, cell proliferation, angiogenesis and migration, regulate cell cycle and cell transformation

Regulates M2 polarization of macrophages and triggers apoptosis via its binding to antitumor

T cells. Induces the expression of matrix metalloproteinases through p38-MAPK pathway. Maintains mitochondrial homeostasis and regulates tumor metabolism

[17, 30,31,32,33,34,35,36,37,38,39,40,41,42,43,44,45]

Gal-8

Glioma, breast, ovarian, prostate, thyroid, colon, liver, lung, bladder, renal, laryngeal

Mediates cell adhesion, migration, proliferation and survival

Binds to integrins and activates the downstream FAK pathway, interacts with activated leukocyte cell adhesion molecule receptors

[46,47,48,49,50,51,52,53,54,55,56,57]

Gal-9

Glioma, breast, ovarian, cervical, pancreas, prostate, colon, liver, lung, melanoma, renal, oral, myeloma, cholangiocarcinoma, esophageal

Affects cell adhesion and metastasis, induces apoptosis

Regulates JNK and p38 MAP kinase pathways, mitochondrial pathway, blocks adhesion to endothelium and extracellular matrices

[58,59,60,61,62,63,64,65,66,67,68]

Gal-4

Glioma, breast, ovarian, cervical, pancreas, colorectal, liver, lung

Promotes adhesion, reduces cell migration and metastasis formation, induces cell cycle arrest

Interacts with and down-regulates the functions of Wnt signaling pathway. Interferes with the integrin beta 4/Src/FAK cascade

[69,70,71,72,73,74,75,76]

Gal-7

Breast, ovarian, colon, cervical, neuroblastoma, melanoma, gastric, urothelial, thyroid

Correlates with cell proliferation, migration, infiltration and chemosensitivity

Inhibits the TGF beta/Smad3 pathway

[77,78,79,80]

Gal-2

Breast, colon

Increases adhesion

Unclear

[81, 82]

Gal-12

Cervical, colorectal

Reduces cell growth

Binds to SLC1A5 and inhibits glutamine anaplerosis

[83]