Fig. 1
From: Risk factors for immune-related adverse events: what have we learned and what lies ahead?
The mechanisms for immune-related adverse events (irAEs) remain elusive. Proposed mechanisms include enhanced activity of immune cells (primarily T and B cells) and consequent increased production of cytokines and antibodies against antigens that are shared between tumors and healthy tissue, as well as the ectopic expression of cytotoxic T-lymphocyte antigen 4 (CTLA-4) on normal tissue. Besides, the contribution of gut microbiota and genetic variability to irAEs suggest some other, as yet unspecified, mechanisms. Symbols including triangle, cycle and square in host cell and tumor cell represent antigens that each cell expressed