Fig. 2

The functions of MAFs. After activated, metastasis-associated fibroblasts (MAFs) are able to remodel extracellular matrix (ECM), modulate immune cells in the tumor microenvironment (TME), induce angiogenesis and promote malignant phenotypes of tumor cells by expressing factors. With these abilities, MAFs are capable of mediating resistance to therapeutic strategies, including immunotherapy, antiangiogenic therapy, hormone therapy and chemotherapy. TGF-β, transforming growth factor-β; CXCL10, C-X-C motif ligand 10; CXCL12, C-X-C motif ligand 12; IL-1α/β, Interleukin-1 alpha/beta; MMP, matrix metalloproteinase; CCL2, C‑C motif chemokine ligand 2; CCL5, C‑C motif chemokine ligand 5; IGF2, insulin-like growth factor 2; IL-33, interleukin-33; VEGF: vascular endothelial growth factor; IL-6, interleukin-6; HGF: hepatocyte growth factor